Chapter 3 (語言學)

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1、單擊此處編輯母版標題樣式,,單擊此處編輯母版文本樣式,,第二級,,第三級,,第四級,,第五級,,,*,,,Chapter 3 Morphology,,,,,,,（理論篇）,Week 9,,,,Grammatical system,,English grammatical system features as a hierarchical system,Sentences,,Clause,,Phrase,,Word,words and word formation,,Morpheme,morphology,,Grammar,,,Outline of this Chapter,,Morpholog

2、y,Words and Word formation process,More examples in daily-life,1,2,3,,,Morphology and morphemes,‘the study of form’,–,used in biology,,A,nalyze all those,basic ‘elements’,in a language,,,,morphemes,,,,,,A,minimal unit of,meaning,or,grammatical,function,,t,alks, talker, talked, talking,,ta,lk,,-s, -,

3、er,, -ed, -,ing,,,Morphology and morphemes,,Morphology:,,the study of morphemes, and their different forms (allomorphs) and the way they combine in word formation.,,For example, the English word,unfriendly,is formed from,friend,, the adjective-forming suffix,-,ly,and the negative prefix,,un-,,,,,Mor

4、pheme,:,,the,smallest meaningful,unit in a language. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning. Morphemes can have,grammatical functions,.,examples,,E,xamples,Kind,,Unkindness,,She,talks,with me.,,Metropolis,,Necropolis,,Indianapolis,,,Free Morphemes,Bound Morphemes,Der

5、ivational Morphemes,Inflectional Morphemes,C1,C2,C3,C4,Types of Morphemes,,Bound Morphemes,,F,ree and bound morphemes,F,ree morpheme:,,m,orphemes which can stand by themselves as single words.,e.g.,open,and,tour,,,B,ound morpheme:,those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically atta

6、ched to another form.,e.g.,re-, -,ist,, -ed, -s.,,,,Affix: prefixes, suffixes and infixes according to the position in relation to the stem.,,,examples,,u,ndressed,,,u,n- dress -ed,,p,refix stem suffix,,(bound) (free) (bound),,,carelessness,,care -less -ness,,s

7、tem suffix,suffix,,,(free) (bound) (bound),,T,ypes of free morphemes,,lexical morphemes,,,(‘open’ class of word),,,F,ree morphemes,,,functional morphemes,,(‘closed’ class of word),,D,erivational and inflectional morphemes,,derivational morphemes,,,(,派生詞素,),,,Bound morphemes,,,,inflectio

8、nal morphemes,,(,屈折詞素,),,,D,erivational morphemes,A,derivational morpheme is used to create an entirely new word and often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.,I,t may take the form of a,prefix,or a,suffix,.,,,S,uffixes,such as,–,ish,in foolish, the,–,ly,in badly and

9、,–,ment,in payment, etc.,,P,refixes,such as re-, pre-, ex-,,dis,-, co-, un- etc.,,Inflectional,morphemes,,Definition:,,,An inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical information about an existing lexical item. These are,not used to produce new words,in the English Language, but rather to ind

10、icate aspects of the,grammatical function,of a word.,,,Inflectional,morphemes,English has only,eight,inflectional morphemes, illustrated in the following:,,,,,,Let me tell you about Jim,’s,two sister,s,.,(,-’s,possessive and,–s,plural),,O,ne like,s,to have fun and is always laugh,ing,.,(,-s,3rd pers

11、on present singular,,-,ing,present participle),,The other lik,ed,to study and has always tak,en,things seriously.,(,-ed,past tense,,-en,past participle),,One is the loud,est,person in the house and,th,e other is quiet,er,than a mouse.,(,-,est,superlative and,–,er,comparative),,N,oun +,-’s, -s,,Verb

12、+,-s, -,ing,, -ed, -en,,Adj. +,-,est,, -,er,,,All the inflectional morphemes listed here are,,suffixes,.,,D,ifferent categories of morphemes,,,free,,,M,orphemes,,bound,L,exical,functional,,derivational,inflectional,,S,tem and root,,Stem,（詞干）,,that part of a word to which an inflectional morpheme is

13、or can be added.,,A simple stem consisting of only one morpheme (root) e.g. work,,A root plus a derivation affix, e.g. worker,,Two or more roots, e.g. workshop,,,Root,（詞根）,a morpheme which is the basic part of a word and which may occur on its own. Roots may be joined to other roots (house + hold= h

14、ousehold) or take affixes (e.g. manly, coldness),,A,llomorph,（語素變體）,phonemes, allophones,,（音位、音位變體）,,morphemes, allomorphs,（語素、語素變體）,,,Morphemes are abstract units, which can be realized by concrete allomorphs in different phonological and morphological context. To be simple, the allomorphs can be,p

15、honologically,or,morphologically,conditioned.,,A,llomorph,（語素變體）,1,P,honologically-conditioned allomorphic variants,,,P,lural,‘-s’,,C,ats,/s/,,D,ogs,/z/,,H,orses,/,iz,/,,,,,,Refer to P82 for more details,,A,llomorph,（語素變體）,2,Morphologically,-conditioned allomorphic variants,,,,‘irregular’ forms of N

16、,egative prefix,,,in-,im,-,il,-,ir,-,,in,active,im,mature,il,logical,ir,regular,,in,coherent,im,mortal,il,legible,ir,rational,,in,experienced,im,perfect,il,legal,ir,relevant,,in,secure,im,practical,il,legitimate,ir,responsible,,,‘irregular’ forms of plurals,,cats, sheep, men, oxen, data,,,‘irregular

17、’ forms of past tense,,walked, went, had,,,Word Classes,,Open Class words,:,,,,are also terms,lexical or content words,in the sense that they all carry certain semantic contents and new words can be added to these classes. In English,,nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,make up the largest part of the

18、 vocabulary.,,,,Closed Class word,:,,,,also known as,grammatical words or function words.,,Conjunctions, prepositions, article,and,pronouns,consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class words since new words are not usually added to them.,,W,ord-formation processes,

19、C,ompounding,Derivation,Blending,Backformation,Conversion,Clipping,Borrowing,Coinage,Acronyms,Multiple process,,Compounding,,（復合法）,Compounding refers to a process of joining two separate words to produce a single form.,,Obvious,English,examples would be,,bookcase, fingerprint, sunburn, wallpaper, do

20、orknob, textbook, basketball, waterbed, box-office,,etc.,,,Compounding are realized actually not only in n. + n. form, but also v. + n., n. + -,ed,participle and adj. + -,ed,participle.,,e.g.,v. + n. – n.,: breakwater,,n. + -,ed,participle – adj.:,homemade, culture-oriented,,adj. + -,ed,participle –

21、 adj.,: newborn, deep-laid,,,,n. + adj. – adj.,: environment-friendly, duty-free, eye-catching,,,Compounding,,（復合法）,Compounds are written in different ways. Some can be written,as a single word,, such as wardrobe, seashore, daylight; some can be,joined with a hyphen,, such as wedding-ring, rest-room

22、, simple-minded and some can be,written with ordinary spaces between the two parts,, such as washing machine, wedding breakfast, traffic island, etc.,,Derivation,（派生法）,Derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.,,Word class changed,,length + en lengthen

23、 deaf + en deafen,,hospital +,ize,hospitalize exact +,ly,exactly,,Fool +,ish,foolish rapid +,ity,rapidity,,Delight +,ful,delightful mean + ness meanness,,Inhabit + ant inhabitant,,Accept + able acceptable,,,Different fro

24、m compounds, DERIVATION shows the relation between roots (or stems) and affixes.,,Derivation,（派生法）,(b) Word class unchanged,,non + smoker nonsmoker,,ex + president ex-president,,dis,+ obey disobey,,tall +,ish,tallish,,il,+ logical illogical,,un + do undo,Different from compounds, DE

25、RIVATION shows the relation between roots (or stems) and affixes.,,Blending,（縮合法）,Breakfast + lunch = brunch,,Motor + hotel = motel; boat + hotel = boatel,,Smoke + fog = smog; smoke + haze =,smaze,,,Net + citizen =,netizen,,,Gasoline + alcohol = gasohol,,Chinese + English =,Chinglish,,,BLENDING is r

26、elatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.,,,Clipping (Abbreviation),（縮略法）,Cutting the final part,,Advertisement,ad,,Bicycle,bike,,Brassie

27、re,bra,,Fanatic,fan,,Mathematics,math,,Professor,,prof,,Gasoline,gas,,Laboratory,lab,,Chemistry,,chem,,,Examination,exam,,Gymnasium,gym,,,,,Clipping is a process by which a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech.,,Clipping (Abbreviation),（縮略法）,,Cutting th

28、e initial part,,Aeroplane,,plane,,Helicopter,copter,,Caravan,van,,Omnibus,bus,,Telephone,phone,,,Cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly,,Influenza,flu,,Refrigerator,fridge,,,Backformation,（逆向構(gòu)詞法）,to televise ← television (Important football games are televised. ),,to diagnose,← diagnos

29、is,,to donate,← donation,,to opt,← option,,to emote,← emotion,,to negate,← negation,,to,babysit,,← babysitter,,t,o enthuse ← enthusiasm,,to televise ← television,,,This process of word-formation refers to the removal of an affix from an existing word to form a new word.,,Borrowing,（借詞）,Alcohol (Arab

30、ic),,Boss (Dutch),,Piano (Italian),,Robot (Czech),,Tycoon (Japanese),,Yogurt (Turkish),,A special type of borrowing is the formation of words through analogy and contrast.,,Acronyms,（首字母組合法）,EEC,European Economic Community,,CIA,Central Intelligence Agency,,UNESCO,United Nations Education Science and

31、 Culture Organization,,WTO,World Trade Organization,,WB,World Bank,,SARS,,Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome,Some new words, known as acronyms, are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words.,,Coinage,（創(chuàng)新詞）,(Invention, neologism),,aspirin,,,Internet, email,,blog,,,netizen,,,nylon, jean,,

32、,,xerox,,,,hoover,, zipper,One of the least common processes of word-formation in English, that is the invention of totally new terms.,,Conversion,（轉(zhuǎn)類法，詞類轉(zhuǎn)換）,,butter,,,holiday, vacation,,baby, nurse,,,dry, free, better,,,down, up,,…,A word can be converted from one word class into another without any morphological change,,M,ultiple process,,More updated examples in our daily life,,,,Week 10,,實踐篇歡迎關(guān)注,,