論文電池監(jiān)測和電能管理先決條件未來汽車電力系統(tǒng)（英文版）

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1、 Journal of Power Sources 116 (2003) 79–98 Battery Monitoring and Electrical Energy Management Precondition for future vehicle electric power systems 電池監(jiān)測和電能管理 先決條件，未來汽車電力系統(tǒng) Eberhard Meissner*, Gerolf Richter VARTA Automotive, Vehicle Electric Systems & System Devel

2、opment, P.O. Box 210 520, D-30405 Hannover, Germany Abstract New vehicle electric systems are promoted by the needs of fuel economy and ecology as well as by new functions for the improvement of safety and comfort, reliability, and the availability of the vehicle. Electrically controlled and

3、 powered systems for braking, steering and stabilisation need a reliable supply of electrical energy. The planned generation of electrical energy (only when it is economically beneficial meaningful), an adequate storage, and thrifty energy housekeeping with an intelligent integration of the batter

4、y as the storage medium into the overall concept of the vehicle Energy Management, and early detection of possible restrictions of reliability by Battery Monitoring allows for actions by the Energy Management well in advance, while the driver need not be involved at all. To meet today’s requirement

5、s for Battery Monitoring and Energy Management, solutions have been developed for series vehicles launched in years 2001–2003, operating at the 14 V level. # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Automotive battery; SLI; Vehicle electric power system; Battery

6、Monitoring; State-of-charge (SOC); State-of-health (SOH); Battery Management; Energy Management 摘要 新系統(tǒng)的推廣電動車輛的燃油經(jīng)濟性和生態(tài)的需要，以及由為安全和舒適性，可靠性和車輛的實用性改進的新功能。電控和動力制動，轉(zhuǎn)向和穩(wěn)定系統(tǒng)需要一個可靠的電能供應。 電能的（只有當它在經(jīng)濟上是有益的有意義）計劃的產(chǎn)生，一足夠的存儲，節(jié)約能源和 家政與本電池作為存儲介質(zhì)將車輛能源管理整體概念智能集成，可靠性和可能的限制由電池監(jiān)測早期檢測由能源管理行動提前做好允許，而司機不必

7、在所有參與。 為了滿足電池監(jiān)測和能源管理今天的要求，解決方案已制定了一系列的車輛推出 在2001-2003年，在14 V的水平運行。 ＃2003 Elsevier科學B.訴保留所有權(quán)利。 關(guān)鍵詞：汽車電池，SLI技術(shù)，車輛電力系統(tǒng)，電池監(jiān)測;國家的主管（SOC）的，國家的健康（希望之聲）;電池 管理，能源管理 朗讀 顯示對應的拉丁字符的拼音 1. Introduction The term ‘‘Battery Monitoring’’ is used in a wide range of meanings, from occasi

8、onal manual readings of voltages, of electrolyte gravity SG and level, and visual cell inspection, through periodical tests of capacity or manual measurement of battery resistance, to fully automated on-line supervision in critical applications with means for real-time estimation of residue bridging

9、 time, or of battery wear and tear. In this paper, the term Battery Monitoring is used for supervision without manual engagement, which is state-of- the-art with many cycling batteries in automatically guided vehicles (AGVs), forklift trucks, submarines, electrically driven cars and

10、 trucks, as well as with standby batteries in telecom and UPS applications. With consumer applica- tions, any mobile phone, laptop or pocket computer, or even a wristwatch is equipped with a device providing some information with respect to energy being left. Classical industrial

11、cycling applications and many con- sumer devices are characterised by periodical complete recharge, providing a well-defined reset to full state-of-charge (SOC), * Corresponding author. Tel.: 49-511-975-2410. discharge starting from full SOC, until either the battery is exhausted o

12、r duty is completed, scarcely any recharge without reaching full SOC level (‘‘opportunity charge’’), and single type of discharge duty only to provide power for an application characterised by limited range of discharge and recharge current rates, and operation temperatures. Perio

13、dical reset to full SOC allows for regularly re- calibration, and in the rare cases when recharge was unti- mely interrupted, some loss of precision may be acceptable. Discharge starting from a well-defined battery status with a limited variety of current rates and profiles facilitates track

14、- ing of battery status. More difficult is the situation with stationary batteries operated together with solar or wind energy plants. While some of the characteristics mentioned above facilitate Battery Monitoring, as with traction batteries, full SOC is scarcely reached, because

15、sizing of components and operational strategy aim at never reaching the extremes of the operating window in order to make optimum use of the solar and wind power potentially offered. Therefore, tracking of operational history to evaluate the actual battery condition is diffi

16、cult due to the accumulation of measuring inaccuracies. 0378-7753/03/$ – see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00713-9 80 E. Meissner, G. Richter / Journal of Power Sources 116 (2003) 79–98 When compared with these two typ

17、es of operation, the specific different situation of automotive batteries becomes obvious, technically impeding Battery Monitoring in the automotive fields: They are scarcely ever been completely charged, i.e. ‘‘opportunity charge’’ is standard. Recharge is performed with a

18、 wide range of different current rates. Discharge virtually never starts from a full SOC. Discharge is performed with a wide range of different current rates. Sometimes full discharge or (unfortunately) even over- discharge occurs. A large variety of electric duties must provid

19、e power for may different applications. Operational temperature may even exceed the window from 30 to 70 8C. In addition, the automotive cost level excludes many solutions which may be acceptable in other fields. While the term ‘‘Battery Monitoring’’ comprises taking and/or rece

20、iving data from and/or about the battery, processing of this information, including predictions of performance, and indicating raw data or processed information to a human being or a unit, i.e. only passive surveillance and evaluation, the term ‘‘Battery Management’’ means active fee

21、dback to the battery. This may comprise control of current or voltage levels, control of recharge conditions, limiting of the opera- tional windows with respect to SOC and/or temperature, battery temperature management, etc. ‘‘Energy Management (Electrical)’’ means housekeeping with the el

22、ectrical energy, i.e. control of energy generation, flow, storage, and consumption. Without the essential informa- tion from Battery Monitoring, Energy Management may scarcely work. An appropriate Battery Management may significantly enhance and improve, but is not a precondition f

23、or, a successful Energy Management. Fig. 1 sketches the layer structure of Battery Monitoring generating Battery Status Information, Battery Management, and Energy Management. Fig. 1. Layer structure of Battery Monitoring generating Battery Status Information, Battery Managemen

24、t, and Energy Management, and mutual data flow. It is Energy Management, preferably including Battery Management, which, based on the information from Battery Monitoring, allows for a self-standing operation of a system without manual input—the comfort and the technical neces- sity request

25、ed for a vehicle at the beginning of the 21st century. 2. Changes in electric systems and the drivers for these changes Vehicle electric power systems are driven more and more by the needs of fuel economy and ecology as well as by new functions for the improvement of safety and com

26、fort. New components may improve comfort and reliability, and the availability of the vehicle. In many cases, there is potential to reduce production and operational cost. Electrically con- trolled and powered systems for braking, steering and stabilisation need a reliable su

27、pply of electrical energy. Possible restrictions of reliability have to be prevented by the Energy Management and evaluated in advance, while the driver need not be involved at all. Reduction of fuel consumption is expected to be achieved by replacement of mechanically driven auxiliary com

28、po- nents by electrical components, which are been activated only when they are needed, and higher energy efficiency with generation, distribution, and use of electrical energy. While these goals are aiming at improvements of electrical engines, energy transfer and design of t

29、he electrical con- sumers, an important contribution can also be given by the planned generation of electrical energy, an adequate storage, and a thrifty energy housekeeping. Electric energy has to be generated when it is economically beneficial, and stored until it is needed in period

30、s when generation is either inefficient or not possible at all. This means an intelligent integration of the battery as the storage medium into the overall concept of the vehicle Energy Management. Careful monitoring and control of energy flows allows for minimum investment with r

31、espect to cost, weight and volume. The overall requisite electrical performance is increas- ing—with much higher fluctuations of the load demand than today. This cannot be covered by simple scaling up of today’s components. Procedures are needed for optimal use of the batte

32、ry resource: knowledge of actual state-of- charge, power capability, and degradation of the battery as an input for Energy Management. 2.1. The automotive battery in the past In the beginning of the development of road vehicles driven by an internal combustion engine (ICE), there

33、 was no electrical equipment at all on board of the vehicle besides the ICE ignition, realised by magneto ignition or—more reli- ably—by primary dry cells. Lighting of luxury cars was soon provided electrically by storage batteries. But it was as late E. Meissner, G. Richter / Journal of P

34、ower Sources 116 (2003) 79–98 81 as 1912 that the first electrical starter motor was used in a series production car. This displacement of the cranking lever by a battery-driven electrical starter motor helped the combustion engine make the final breakthrough as the source of pow

35、er for road vehicles. In view of the fact that the start routine is a very short one, both components, battery and starter motor, have, over the years, undergone a complete optimisation to obtain the best possible torque for the lowest possible manufacturing costs. The further development of the ve

36、hicle electrical system was favoured by the fact that increasingly powerful (claw- pole type) alternators became available at ever-decreasing manufacturing costs, and the vehicle battery, which was repeatedly called upon to provide cold starting power, was able to deliver some energy at all

37、times to cover electrical requirements even during periods when the power supply to consumers was inadequate. The dc alternators suffered from low or even no power output at low revs, so the battery had to provide electric power not only when the engine was at rest, but also when it was on

38、 idle. This was not an issue for decades, as electrical ignition, lighting and windscreen-wipers were the only consumers, and features like radio and electrically driven fans were limited to upper-class vehicles. In the 1960s, the automotive industry countered a major electrical energy bottleneck,

39、caused by the rapid rise in the number of electrical consumers installed, esp. the introduction of the electrical window defroster, by doubling the battery voltage to 12 V and introducing an adapted 14 V three-phase ac alternator. 2.2. The automotive battery in present vehicles

40、 This technical concept is unchanged to the present day. Fig. 2 shows voltage and current measured during cranking of a high-end engine at ambient temperature. The engine is running within about 100 ms. Even at low temperature, a modern car ICE is running within some seconds—or will not cra

41、nk at all. In classical vehicles, the battery is a completely passive energy and power storage device: Fig. 2. Voltage and current measured during cranking of a high-end gasoline engine at ambient temperature. it is discharged if more energy is consumed than gener- ated—withou

42、t any check if the battery is able to give this energy (in a meaningful way), and energy for recharge is offered to the battery if more energy is available than is actually needed – without any check if the battery is able to take the energy. This so-called partial state-of-charge (PSOC) op

43、erating mode is standard for SLI batteries since decades. Typical SOC levels are about 90% after an extended highway drive in summertime, down to less than 50% in a traffic jam condition in wintertime—or even much less, which may generate cranking problems when the engine is

44、 switched off in this state. The actual recharge voltage at the battery terminals depends on the actual alternator voltage and on the Ohmic losses at their connection, according to the current flowing to or from the battery or to other components. This may reduce the battery recharge voltage

45、 by several 100 mV compared to the alternator output voltage as can be measured with upper- class vehicles with the battery mounted in the trunk. Even if a temperature-dependent voltage regulator is used, this is mounted near to the alternator, and does not care about the battery temperature

46、 which may still be low for hours when the alternator is already at operational temperature. There is no control of recharge current, and the state-of- charge of the battery is a scarcely predictable function of electrical loads, driving conditions, alternator, and regulator properties, and

47、 battery properties including size, design, temperature, and battery ageing. The measured voltage versus current profile (the situation is given in Figs. 7 and 8 in [1]) shows a hysteresis-like behaviour, as the SLI battery is alternately discharged and recharged. The voltage level a

48、nd the duration of the periods of discharge and charge, depend on the operating conditions as well as on the layout of the system and the battery properties, cf. [1,2]. The electrical system, comprising the alternator as the source of current, the battery as current storage device

49、, and the consumers, is designed in such a way that the combina- tion of driving conditions (which determine the possible generation of current by the alternator according to the rpm- profile) and the expected mix of operation of various con- sumers (which determines the current consumpt

50、ion) pro- vides the current not only in the long-term time average, but also over short periods of time. Thanks to significant improvements of power supply even at low and idle speed of the ICE by improved characteristics and higher efficiency of the alternator, current generation by the alternat

51、or is sufficient to provide the needs of the consumers in many states of operation, and the battery’s complete energy storage capability is scarcely ever used. The battery has to jump in only if 1. The internal combustion engine (ICE) is off (quiescent loads, parking light, ICE c

52、ranking). 82 E. Meissner, G. Richter / Journal of Power Sources 116 (2003) 79–98 Fig. 3. Load response behaviour of alternator and battery upon onset of the battery which stabilises the electrical voltage level. 2. The energy generation cannot cover the demand, i.e. if the ICE is

53、 on idle with many electric consumers being switched on, e.g. in wintertime or night traffic jam situations. 3. The alternator cannot follow sudden load changes of the consumers, i.e. the battery stabilises the electrical voltage level. Fig. 3 shows a typical load respo

54、nse behaviour. 4. The alternator is defective (emergency duty). However, with high-end class vehicles that feature a multitude of electrical consumers, discharged batteries are being found with increasing frequency in broken-down vehicles, particularly if only short daily dis

55、tances are travelled at low temperatures, e.g. in stop/start traffic. More and more electrical loads have to be supplied also when the engine is off or on idle. Quiescent loads comprise not only the clock as 20 years ago, but also anti theft equipment, tele de-lock, and not t

56、o forget the electronic engine controller which is kept in ‘‘wake’’ mode for some period of time after stand-still of the engine to provide a quick and environmentally friendly re-start. And if the vehicle is opened via tele de lock, the vehicle lights blink friendly and lights its interio

57、r, consuming up to 1 Wh from the battery each time. 2.3. The automotive battery in future vehicles Various technological directions for future road vehicles may come up independently or in combinations, depending on the different goals of safety, comfort and economy: 1. Even more compone

58、nts which need electrical power with high-reliability. 2. The demand for ‘‘ensured mobility’’, i.e. cranking and energy supply to essential functions under all (standard or misuse) conditions. 3. Further extension of electrical demand, including new types of electrically d

59、riven components with new profiles, including higher (peak) power demand and higher current transients. 4. Start/stop operation mode of the ICE. 5. Electrical brake energy recovery (recuperation). 6. Torque assist/acceleration assist (boost) mode. The power demand of upper-class

60、 vehicles, starting from less than 500 W in the nineteen sixties, had increased to more than 2 kW by the year 2000, and will further increase, and will be followed by middle class and compact class vehicles. For the next decade, automotive engineers predict an explosive increase to

61、 about 10 kW (e.g. [3]). E. Meissner, G. Richter / Journal of Power Sources 116 (2003) 79–98 83 Precise numbers for the expected power to be provided differ from various sources (e.g. [3,4]). Today, a significant portion of fuel (about 1 l/100 km, and even more with high-end cars) is burne

62、d in an ICE vehicle to generate electric energy for the various electric components on board the vehicle [5]. Due to the poor efficiency chain of energy conversion from fuel via combustion engine and alternator to the component (sometimes stored in the battery for some time before), for gener

63、ation of 100 W of electrical power the fuel consumption is increased by about 0.15 l/ 100 km [6,7], i.e. saving of 100 W of electrical power losses reduces fuel consumption as much as a weight reduction of 50 kg, demonstrating the high potential of optimisation the electrical power system

64、for reduction of fuel consumption and emissions. A completely new situation for the vehicle electrical system, and therefore for the battery, occurs if the predictions of the energy suppliers and environmental scientists are taken seriously [8,9], with consumption levels for new vehicles se

65、t to fall by the year 2015 to half of the value of approximately 9 l/100 km today. The situation is particularly critical, since this is expected to be possible only through challenging technical measures which bring up further electrical demands, many with significant current t

66、ransients like auto- matic variable transmission control (VTC) or automatic switch gear (ASG), and the more frequent use of turbo chargers, automatic idling stop, recovery of braking energy as electrical energy, electrical support for the combustion engine by an electrical machine in the low-torque and emission-critical starting range at low revs, and avoidance of throttle valve losses and optimum mixing in gasoline engines by electromagnetic valve actuati