像經(jīng)濟學家一樣的思考.ppt

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2007ThomsonSouth Western ThinkingLikeanEconomist EveryfieldofstudyhasitsownterminologyMathematics每一研究領域都有自己的術語體系Integrals 積分 axioms 公理 vectorspaces矢量空間PsychologyEgo 自我 id 本我 cognitivedissonance 認知的不一致性 Lawpromissory estoppel禁止翻供 torts民事侵權 venues 案發(fā)地點 Economicssupply opportunitycost elasticity consumersurplus demand comparativeadvantage deadweightloss 無謂損失 ThinkingLikeanEconomist像經(jīng)濟學家那樣思考 Economicstrainsyouto Thinkintermsofalternatives 以可變換的術語思考Evaluatethecostofindividualandsocialchoices 評估個人與社會選擇的成本Examineandunderstandhowcertaineventsandissuesarerelated 考察和理解特定事件與問題是相互聯(lián)系的 THEECONOMISTASASCIENTIST Theeconomicwayofthinking 經(jīng)濟學家思考的方式Involvesthinkinganalyticallyandobjectively 涉及分析性與客觀性思考Makesuseofthescientificmethod 采用科學的方法Usesabstractmodelstohelpexplainhowacomplex realworldoperates 使用抽象的模型以幫助闡釋一個復雜的 真實的世界是如何運行的 Developstheories collectsandanalyzesdatatoevaluatethetheories 開發(fā)出各種理論 收集并分析評估理論的數(shù)據(jù) TheScientificMethod Observation Theory andMoreObservation科學方法 觀察 理論以及更多的觀察 Usesabstractmodelstohelpexplainhowacomplex realworldoperates 使用抽象的模型以幫助闡釋一個復雜的 真實的世界是如何運行的 Developstheories collectsandanalyzesdatatoevaluatethetheories 開發(fā)出各種理論 收集并分析評估理論的數(shù)據(jù) Economistsusedifferentassumptionstoanswerdifferentquestions 經(jīng)濟學家使用不同的假設來回答不同的問題 TheRoleofAssumptions Holdotherthingsconstant Economistsmakeassumptionsinordertomaketheworldeasiertounderstand 經(jīng)濟學家采用假設是為了使世界比較容易被理解Theartinscientificthinkingisdecidingwhichassumptionstomake EconomicModels Economistsusemodelstosimplifyrealityinordertoimproveourunderstandingoftheworld 經(jīng)濟學家使用模型來簡化現(xiàn)實是為了改善我們對世界的理解 OurFirstModel AD ASmodel Firms suppliers producers supplysideProduceandsellgoodsandservices生產(chǎn)和出售商品與服務Hireandusefactorsofproduction雇傭和使用生產(chǎn)要素Households demanders individual demandsideBuyandconsumegoodsandservices購買和消費商品與服務Ownandsellfactorsofproduction擁有和出售生產(chǎn)要素 OurFirstModel labordemandandlaborsupply MarketsforGoodsandServices商品與服務市場Firmssell企業(yè)出售Householdsbuy家庭購買MarketsforFactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素市場Householdssell家庭出售Firmsbuy企業(yè)購買 OurFirstModel TheCircular FlowDiagram FactorsofProduction生產(chǎn)要素Inputsusedtoproducegoodsandservices用來生產(chǎn)商品與服務的投入Land labor andcapital土地 勞動力和資本 OurSecondModel TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontier Theproductionpossibilitiesfrontierisagraphthatshowsthecombinationsofoutputthattheeconomycanpossiblyproducegiventheavailablefactorsofproductionandtheavailableproductiontechnology 生產(chǎn)可能性邊界是展示在可獲得的生產(chǎn)要素和生產(chǎn)技術給定的情況下 經(jīng)濟有可能產(chǎn)出的產(chǎn)量之圖形 Figure2TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontier Quantityof CarsProduced 0 3 000 1 000 Quantityof Computers Produced OurSecondModel TheProductionPossibilitiesFrontier Conceptsillustratedbytheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier生產(chǎn)可能性邊界所描述的概念Efficiency效率Trade offs權衡取舍Opportunitycost機會成本Economicgrowth經(jīng)濟增長 Figure3AShiftintheProductionPossibilitiesFrontier Quantityof CarsProduced 0 Quantityof Computers Produced MicroeconomicsandMacroeconomics Microeconomicsfocusesontheindividualpartsoftheeconomy 微觀經(jīng)濟學關注經(jīng)濟中的個案部分Howhouseholdsandfirmsmakedecisionsandhowtheyinteractinspecificmarkets家庭與企業(yè)如何做出決策以及他們?nèi)绾卧谔囟ǖ氖袌鲋邢嗷ビ绊慚acroeconomicslooksattheeconomyasawhole 微觀經(jīng)濟學把經(jīng)濟看作一個整體Economy widephenomena includinginflation unemployment andeconomicgrowth經(jīng)濟范圍現(xiàn)象包括通貨膨脹 失業(yè)與經(jīng)濟增長 THEECONOMISTASPOLICYADVISOR作為政策顧問的經(jīng)濟學家 Wheneconomistsaretryingtoexplaintheworld theyarescientists 當經(jīng)濟學家試圖解釋世界時 他們是科學家 Wheneconomistsaretryingtochangetheworld theyarepolicyadvisors 當經(jīng)濟學家試圖改變世界時 他們是政策顧問 PositiveversusNormativeAnalysis Positivestatementsarestatementsthatattempttodescribetheworldasitis 實證性描述是試圖描述世界到底是什么樣的描述Calleddescriptiveanalysis稱為描述性分析Normativestatementsarestatementsabouthowtheworldshouldbe 規(guī)范性描述是有關世界應當是什么樣的描述Calledprescriptiveanalysis稱為處方性分析 PositiveVersusNormativeAnalysis Arethefollowingpositiveornormativestatements Anincreaseintheminimumwagewillcauseadecreaseinemploymentamongtheleast skilled 最低工資的增加將引起無技能或低技能者就業(yè)的減少POSITIVEHigherfederalbudgetdeficitswillcauseinterestratestoincrease 更高的聯(lián)邦預算赤字將導致利率的提高POSITIVE PositiveVersusNormativeAnalysis Arethefollowingpositiveornormativestatements 下列是實證性陳述還是規(guī)范性陳述 Theincomegainsfromahigherminimumwageareworthmorethananyslightreductionsinemployment 來自更高的最低工資水平所獲得的收入獲益要比就業(yè)的任何輕微減少都更有價值 NORMATIVEStategovernmentsshouldbeallowedtocollectfromtobaccocompaniesthecostsoftreatingsmoking relatedillnessesamongthepoor 州政府應當被獲許向煙草公司收取治療窮人與吸煙有關之疾病的費用 NORMATIVE EconomistsinWashington serveasadvisersinthepolicymakingprocessofthethreebranchesofgovernment 華盛頓的經(jīng)濟學家作為治理政體三大分支的決策顧問參與決策過程Legislative立法Executive行政Judicial司法 EconomistsinWashington Somegovernmentagenciesthatcollecteconomicdataandmakeeconomicpolicyinclude 有些收集經(jīng)濟數(shù)據(jù)并制定經(jīng)濟政策的政府機構包括 DepartmentofCommerce商務部merce govBureauofLaborStatistics勞工統(tǒng)計局http www bls govCongressionalBudgetOffice國會預算辦公室http www cbo govFederalReserveBoard聯(lián)邦儲備委員會http www federalreserve gov WHYECONOMISTSDISAGREE Theymaydisagreeaboutthevalidityofalternativepositivetheoriesabouthowtheworldworks 他們有可能在有關世界是如何運行的各種可替換的實證理論的有效性方面產(chǎn)生分歧 WHYECONOMISTSDISAGREE Theymayhavedifferentvaluesand therefore differentnormativeviewsaboutwhatpolicyshouldtrytoaccomplish 他們也可能具有不同的價值觀 因此就具有關于政策應當達到什么目標而具有不同的規(guī)范性觀點 Economiststrytoaddresstheirsubjectswithascientist sobjectivity 經(jīng)濟學家試圖以科學家的客觀性來表達他們的主題Theymakeappropriateassumptionsandbuildsimplifiedmodelsinordertounderstandtheworldaroundthem 他們做出適宜的假設 并建立起簡化模型 以便理解他們周圍的世界 Twosimpleeconomicmodelsarethecircular flowdiagramandtheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier 兩個簡化的經(jīng)濟模型是循環(huán)流動圖和經(jīng)濟可能性邊界 Economicsisdividedintotwosubfields Microeconomicsisthestudyofdecision makingbyhouseholdsandfirmsinthemarketplace Macroeconomicsisthestudyoftheforcesandtrendsthataffecttheeconomyasawhole 經(jīng)濟學家被劃分為兩個分支領域 微觀經(jīng)濟學是對家庭與企業(yè)在市場中是如何決策的予以研究 而宏觀經(jīng)濟學是對各種力量和趨勢影響經(jīng)濟整體的研究 Apositivestatementisanassertionabouthowtheworldis 實證性闡述是有關世界是什么樣的論斷Anormativestatementisanassertionabouthowtheworldoughttobe 規(guī)范性的闡述是有關世界應該是什么樣的論斷Wheneconomistsmakenormativestatements theyareactingmoreaspolicyadvisorsthanscientists 當經(jīng)濟學家做出規(guī)范性闡述時 他們正在行使的角色中政策顧問的成分要多于科學家的成分 Economistswhoadvisepolicymakersofferconflictingadviceeitherbecauseofdifferencesinscientificjudgmentsorbecauseofdifferencesinvalues 向決策者提出忠告的經(jīng)濟學家之所以提出相互沖突的忠告是因為科學判斷的差異或者是價值觀的差異 Atothertimes economistsareunitedintheadvicetheyoffer butpolicymakersmaychoosetoignoreit 有時經(jīng)濟學家在他們所提供的忠告方面達成一致 而決策者卻選擇予以忽視